 |
| Erik Erikson |
Saturday 4 March 2017
Fundamentals of Statistics
 |
| Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley |
Statistics:
In the simplest form, Statistics is defined as a numerical representation of information. According to a renowned English statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley, statistics refers to numerical statements of facts in any area of inquiry.
Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley,
also an economist, worked on economic statistics
and pioneered the use of sampling techniques in social surveys.
Statistics is also
seen a branch of mathematics which deals with enumeration data (one
type of numerical data). Statistics is used as a tool in data analysis of a research;
it is used to gather, organize, analyze, and interpret information gathered.
Let’s first
understand what the data is. Data refers
to a set or a bundle of information which is collected in order to conduct a
research. Data is of two types: Numerical, and Non-numerical.
The data that can
be counted is termed as numerical data;
it deals with numbers and calculation, whereas non-numerical data deals with information which cannot be counted
rather it is inferred or assumed.
Though both types
of data (numerical as well as non-numerical) are information, the role of
statistics is confined to “numerical data” only.
Numerical data is
of two types—enumeration data, and metric data. Enumeration data refers to information which can be counted, for
example, class intervals, frequencies, etc. Metric data is based on measurement; it needs unit specification in
order to make sense of data.
Branch of Statistics:
There are two major
branches of statistics—“Descriptive Statistics”, and “Inferential Statistics”.
Descriptive Statistics:
It describes certain characteristics of a group of data. It has to be precise (precise means brief and exact). It limits generalization to the particular group of individuals observed. Hence, no conclusions are extended beyond this group, and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed. The data describe one group and that group only.Inferential Statistics:
It is related to the estimation or prediction based on certain evidence. It always involves the process of sampling and the selection of a small group. This small group is assumed to be related to the population from which it has been taken. The small group is known as the sample, and the large group is the population. Inferential Statistics allows the research to draw conclusions about populations based on observations of samples.Following are the two important goals of inferential statistics:
·
The first goal is to determine what might be happening in a
population based on a sample of the population.
·
And the second goal is to determine what might happen in future.
Thus, inferential
statistics are to estimate and/or to predict. In order to use inferential
statistics, only a sample of the population is required.
Organization of Data:
Ordered Array:
It refers to the data (a set of information) which is arranged in descending order, for example, 90, 80, 75, 68, 60. The Ordered Array, also known as Set, provides a more convenient arrangement. The highest score is 90 and lowest score is 60 are easily identified. In this way, the range (the difference between the highest and the lowest scores, plus one) can be easily determined.Grouped Data:
The data which can be presented in the form of class interval and frequency is known as the Grouped Data. In this way of presentation, the data are often more clearly presented. Data can be presented in frequency table with different class intervals, depending on the number and range of the scores. There is no rule that rigidly determines the proper score interval. However, intervals of 10 are frequently used.Scope of Educational Psychology
Scope of Educational Psychology:
There are three aspects of education that concern the educational psychologists (those who are experts in the field of educational psychology). These are:
1. Learner
2. Learning Process
3. Learning Situation
Learner:
Learner means the children
or students collectively comprise the classroom group. The learner is the
central theme in educational psychology. What happens in the classroom can be
explained in terms of personalities, developmental stages, adjustment, and
psycho-social problems of students, individual differences in psycho-motor
abilities, and cognitive ability.
Learning
Process:
What goes on when people
learn is terms as “learning process”. The teacher teaches and the children may
learn. Sometimes, the teacher teaches a subject but the children learn
something else. Sometimes, the teacher may not teach something, but the
children may learn it. The educational psychologies is interest in what happens
when a child learns, why he learns what teachers want him to learn, and why he
learns what teachers do not want him to learn.
Learning
Situation:
It refers to those factors
or conditions that affect the learner and the learning process. For example, classroom settings, attitude and
behavior of the teacher, emotional climate of the school, and so on are some of
the significant factors that affect the learner and the learning process.
What is Educational Research?
Educational Research:
In order to understand educational research, we have to first look at what a research is. A research is “planned”, “systematic”, and “rigorous” activity which is carried out to make known whatever is unknown. A research activity is also undertaken to verify whatever is known.
Planned refers to thinking about
something or preparing a roadmap prior to carrying out a research; systematic
means a logical order; and rigorous refers to pain-taking exercise which
requires certain kind of competence, knowledge base and specific skills.
According to Best and Kahn, a
research is directed towards the solution of a problem. It may attempt to
answer a question or to determine the relation between two or more variable.
Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
 |
| What is Educational Research? |
When a research is concerned with
human efforts towards solving the problems related to educational sphere in a
society is termed as “educational research”. Thus, educational research refers
to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the educational
process, generally with a view to improving its efficiency.
The main concerns of educational
research are to understand, explain, predict, and control human behavior in
individual and social situations so that events or situations can be improved
further.
Need for Educational Research:
Educational research (or research in the
field of education) is vital for providing helpful and dependable knowledge
through which the process of education can be made more effective. As we know
that education depends on amount of knowledge, there is a need to add new
knowledge which has to be scientific, to enrich and improve education with
different dimensions.
Research in education helps in clarifying and reinterpreting existing knowledge. The discipline of education finds its roots in philosophy, psychology and sociology. It is through an intensive process of scientific inquiry about the philosophical, psychological and sociological impact on various aspects of education that sound educational theories can be established. Therefore, there is a need for educational research because of changing conception of education.
Summary of general kinds of research:
Summary of general kinds of research:
What are the Different Types of Research?
Types of Research:
Generally, research is classified into the following categories based on the objectives the researcher intends to accomplish.Basic or Fundamental Research:
Basic research is aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes. The purpose of basic or fundamental research is generation of new knowledge for the sake of knowledge. It is not directed towards the solution of immediate practical problems. Basic research is usually conducted by using the most rigorous research methods (e.g., experimental) under tightly controlled laboratory conditions.
Objectives of Educational Research
Objectives of Educational Research:
Exploration:
It is focused on describing the nature of something
that previously was unknown; it is also used when the researcher tries
to understand the specifics of some phenomenon or some situation to develop tentative
hypotheses or generalization about it.
Exploration:
It attempting to learn
about and generate ideas about phenomena) is especially important in the early
phases of research because researchers must generate ideas about phenomena
before additional research can progress.
Description:
It refers to attempting to
describe the characteristics of a phenomenon. Description is one of the most basic activities in research. It
might simply involve observing a phenomenon and recording what one sees.
Explanation:
It attempts to show how and
why a phenomenon operates as it does.
Prediction:
It
is prediction or attempting to predict or forecast a phenomenon. A researcher is able to make a prediction when certain
information that is known in advance can be used to determine what will happen
at a later point in time. Sometimes predictions can also be made from research
studies in which the primary focus is on explanation. That is, when researchers
determine cause-and-effect operation (explanations), the can use this information
to form predictions.
Influence:
It attempts to apply
research to make certain outcomes occur. This objective refers to the application of research knowledge rather
than the generation of research knowledge. It refers to the application
of previous research to control various aspects of the world.
Key Terms: Personality, Psycho-social, Psycho-sexual, Identity
Key Terms used by Erik Erikson:
Personality:
It is the set of characteristics that we typically manifest in our interactions
with others. It includes all the abilities, predispositions, habits, and other
qualities that make each of us different.
It pertains to events or behaviors that relate to the social aspects of
development. Erikson’s theory is psycho-social; it deals with the resolution of
social crises and the development of social competencies.
A term used to describe psychological phenomena based on sexuality. Freud’s
theories are psycho-sexual because they attribute development to sexually based
forces and motives.
Identity:
In Erikson’s theory, “identity” is a term closely related to self. Identity refers
to the individual’s self-definition, a sort of personal sense of who and what
one is. To achieve identity is to arrive at a clear notion of who one is. One of
the important tasks of adolescence is to select and develop a strong sense of identity.
Self-concept:
The concept that an individual has of himself or herself. Notions of the self
are often closely allied with individual’s beliefs about how others perceive
them.
Identity diffusion:
An expression for a stage in early adolescence. During this stage,
the adolescent has a vague and changing sense of identity with no firm
vocational commitment and an ambiguous belief system.
Foreclosure:
Marcia’s term for the adoption of a ready-made identity.
Moratorium:
Erikson’s term for the social functioning of the hiatus between childhood and
adulthood. In Marcia’s description, moratorium individuals are those who have
not yet made a commitment and who are in a state of crisis (conflict) as they
examine and experiment with various identities.
Identity achieved:
Marcia’s term for individuals who have experienced a crisis and made
a commitment, thus achieving a sense of identity.
Friday 3 March 2017
Humanistic Psychology
 |
| Carl Rogers |
Humanistic Psychology:
It is a branch of psychology whose primary concern is with the development of the self with the uniqueness of an individual. Sometimes, humanistic psychology is referred to as third-force psychology; the other two forces are behaviorism and Freudian theory.
Humanistic
psychology has its roots in philosophy, especially in the existential
philosophy of writers such as Jean-Paul
Sartre. These philosophers wondered about the nature and purpose of
humanity and of human existence (hence, the label existentialism). They were
concerned about what it means to be human and how humanity grows and expresses
itself in each individual.
Meanwhile,
it is worth mentioning here that existentialism is a philosophical movement
characterized by a preoccupation with existence. Existential philosophers often
describe the human condition in terms such as abandonment, loneliness, despair, and alienation. These feelings
are assumed to arise from our lack of certain knowledge about our origins and
our eventual end. Hence, the label existentialism because the only knowable
reality is existence.
Humanistic
psychology is an orientation that readily admits that some people smile when they
wallow in mud, some turn up their noses but endure the embarrassment, and
others find such behavior quite unacceptable.
In more
human terms, humanism is based on the fundamental observation that although we
might resemble each other in many ways, each of us is quite different from each
other. Our uniqueness is our “self”. And self is the most central concept in
humanistic psychology.
The Humanistic Teacher:
The humanistic
view emphasizes two things: the uniqueness of the pupil and the teacher’s
attitudes towards students. Hence, humanistic teachers are especially sensitive
to diversity in their classrooms.
If teaching
is both an art and a science, humanists are on the side of art and behaviorists
on the side of science. One should keep in mind that most educators do not fall
into either the humanist, or the behaviorists, or the cognitive camp. Most are
quite eclectic; they borrow from here and there.
Rogerian Humanistic Theory:
Carl
Rogers was the first and foremost a psychotherapist. His main concern was with
understanding human personality in order to understand how it be changed, how
happiness might be restored to saddened lives.
Rogers’
theory emerged primarily as a reaction against other highly popular approaches
to therapy such as Freudian theory and behaviorism. Roger felt strongly that
these approaches were far less respectful and humane than they should be.
There are
different terms which are used to describe the various emphases of Rogerian
theory. These are:
Client-centered therapy (also called “person-centered therapy”):
It describes
several aspects of the system. It indicates, first, that the theory is a
therapeutic one; that is, it is designed to be useful to a counselor who deals
with behavioral and emotional problems. Second, this label highlights the major
difference between this and other approaches to counseling--namely, it
indicates that the counseling procedures revolve around the individual. It
proposes client-centered as opposed to directive therapy. The counselor’s
role in client-centered therapy is accordingly de-emphasized; the therapist,
instead of giving advice or solving problems for clients, sets the stage so
that the clients themselves define their own problems, react to them, and take
steps toward their solution.
Phenomenology:
The
term, commonly used in Rogerian theory, denotes concern with the world as it is
perceived by an individual rather than as the world may actually be. Rogers
notes that counselors and teachers can never truly know the individual’s private,
phenomenological world. But to be
truly effective, they must try to understand it. Accordingly, empathy is an
important characteristic of any humanistic educator.
Humanism:
It has historically been concerned with human worth, with individuality, with humanity, and with the individual’s right to determine personal actions. Accordingly, the development of human potential tends to be highly valued, while the attainment of material goals is de-emphasized. Thus, Rogers describers self-actualization as the end toward which all humans strive.Hypothesis, Theory, Exploratory Method, Confirmatory Method
Hypothesis:
It is a prediction or
educated guess. It is a formal statement of the researcher’s prediction of the
relationship that exists among the variables under the investigation.
Theory:
It refers to an explanation
that discusses how a phenomenon operates and why it operates as it does. Theory
often refers to a generalization or set of generalizations that are used
systematically to explain some phenomenon. In other words, a well-developed
theory explains how something operates in general.
 |
| Research: Exploratory Method |
Exploratory method:
It is a bottom-up (i.e.,
movement from data to patterns to theory) or theory-generation approach to
research. It includes three steps—first, the researcher starts by making
observations; second, the researcher studies the observations and searches for
patterns (i.e., a statement of what is occurring); and third, the researcher
makes a tentative conclusion or a generalization about the pattern or how some
aspect of the world operates. This exploratory method is sometimes called the inductive
method because it moves from the “particular to the general”.
Confirmatory method:
It is a top-down (i.e.,
movement from theory to hypothesis to data) or theory-testing approach to
research. It also includes three steps—first, the researcher states a
hypothesis; second, the researcher collects data to be used to test the
hypothesis empirically; and third, the researcher decides tentatively to accept
or reject the hypothesis on the basis of the data. This confirmatory method is
sometimes called the deductive method because it moves
from the “general to the particular”.
Criterion of
falsifiability:
The criterion of
falsifiability is the property of a statement or theory that it is capable of
being refuted by experience. It also says that we should not selectively search
for confirming evidence for our beliefs and explanations and then stop with
that so-called evidence. Good researchers carefully search for and examine any
negative evidence that operates against their beliefs, research conclusions,
and theoretical explanations.
Rule of parsimony:
It is another criterion for
evaluating theories. A theory is parsimonious when it is simple, concise, and
succinct. For example, if two competing theories explain and predict a
phenomenon equally well, then the more parsimonious theory is to be preferred
according to the rule of parsimony. In other words, simple theories are
preferred over highly complex ones, other things being equal.
Replication:
It refers to research
examining the same variables with different people. Replication by other
researchers should make you more confident about a research finding because the
resulting evidence is much stronger.
Principle of evidence:
It refers to the
philosophical idea that empirical research provides evidence, not proof.
Therefore, from now onwards, whenever you want to use the world proof,
just use the word evidence. In research, slogan goes like this: “It
is about evidence, not proof!” We call this idea the principle of
evidence.
Read Related Posts:
What is Educational Research?
Types of Research:
Objectives of Educational Research:
Programmed Instruction
A
program is a subject which pupils learn. As far as programmed
instruction is concerned, it is a new strategy of teaching. It is a device or
strategy to control student’s behavior and helps them learn without the
supervision of a teacher. It is highly individualized instructional strategy
for modification of behavior.
The
programmed instruction is the arrangement of materials which are to be learnt
by the pupils in graded steps of difficulty; it is in such a manner and
sequence that it will result in the most efficient rate of understanding and
retention. It is a method of giving individualized instructions in which the
student is active and proceeds at his/her own pace. Physical presence of
teacher is not essential in this strategy.
According
to Smith and Moore (1962), “Programmed instruction is a process of arranging
the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves
from a familiar background into complex and set of concepts, principles and
understanding.”
Thus,
it can be concluded that the programmed instruction is an auto-instructional
technique. The information is provided in small steps and each learner
progresses at his/her own pace.
Origin of Programmed Instruction:
- The origin of modern programmed instruction is from the psychology of learning and not from technology.
- It is an application of operant conditioning learning theory to teaching-learning situations.
- It has got a historical momentum, after the publication of “The science of learning and art of teaching” article by B.F. Skinner. In this article, Skinner listed the problems of education system. He also discussed the potential of instructional programs to provide more feedback.
Characteristics of Programmed Instructions:
As far as characteristics
of programmed instructions, these are as follows:
- It is not an audio visual device. It is a part of education technology, i.e. instructional technology.
- It is a method of giving or receiving individualized instructions. It keeps in view their individual differences. The learner moves at his/her own speed.
- It clearly defines the entering and terminal behavior of the learners.
- It is not the solution of educational problems. It is a new instructional strategy for the modification of behavior of learner.
- It is systematic and sequenced.
- It cannot replace the teacher
- It provides immediate feedback to the learners.
Objectives of Programmed Instruction:
The objectives
of programmed instruction have been summarized as follows:
- To help the student in learning by doing.
- To provide the learners situation so that they can learn at their own pace.
- To help students learn in the absence of a teacher.
- To present the content in a controlled manner and in logically related steps.
- To help students in assessing their own performance themselves by comparing it with the given answers.
Assumptions Regarding Programmed Instruction:
The programmed
instruction has the following basic assumptions:
- The student has learnt micro teaching procedure.
- The student learns better if the content matter is presented in small steps.
- The student learns better if he/she is motivated to learn by confirming the responses.
- The student learns better if he/she commits minimum errors in learning.
- The student learns better if the sequence of content is psychological workable.
- The learning may be effective if the pre-requisites are specified on part of the learner.
Principles of Programmed Instruction:
A good
programmed instruction is based upon the principles of learning. These
principles are based on psychological theories. There are five fundamental
principles of programmed instruction. These are the following.
