The process
of development is wide, complex and continuous. Therefore, one has to follow some
of its principles in order to understand it (development). Some of the
principles are the following:
Sunday 5 March 2017
Growth and Development
We are aware of the fact that human life begins from a single fertilized cell. Regular and constant interaction with the environment results in the growth and development of innate capacities, abilities and potentialities of a child. Let’s understand first what the growth and the development mean.
Growth:
It means the growth of different parts of human body. It refers to quantitative changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal organs, etc. The physical growth affects our behavior and vice versa. Therefore, in the simplest form, growth can be defined as body, shape and growth in weight; it also includes growth of muscles. For example, during infancy and childhood, the body of a person steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier. It is “growth”.Development:
It refers
to the various qualitative changes which take place simultaneously with
quantitative changes of growth, for example, social changes, emotional changes,
etc. Development may be defined as a “progressive” series of “orderly and
coherent” changes. The term progressive denotes that changes are directional;
they lead forward rather than backward. Terms such as orderly and coherent suggest
that there is a definite relationship between the changes taking place and
those that precede or will follow them.
Thus,
development represents changes in an organism from its origin to its death. It is
the series of overall changes in an individual due to the emergence of modified
structures and functions that are the outcome of the interaction and exchange
between the organism and its environment.
Difference between growth and development:
Growth
|
Development
|
It is used in purely physical sense. Changes in
the quantitative aspects come under the domain of growth. For example, an
increase in size, length, height, and weight.
|
It indicates changes in the quality or
character rather than in quantitative aspects.
|
The changes produced by growth are the subject
of measurement. They may be quantified and are observable.
|
It brings qualitative changes which are
difficult to be measured. They are assessed through keen observation.
|
Growth may or may not bring development. A child
may grow in terms of weight but this growth may or may not bring any
functional improvement (qualitative changes or development)
|
Development is also possible without growth as
we have seen in the cases of some children that they do not gain in terms of
height, weight, or size, but they do experience functional improvement or
development.
|
Growth is one of the parts of development
process.
|
Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
It refers to overall changes in individual. Growth is one of its parts.
|
Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops
when maturity has been attained.
|
Development is a continuous process. It goes
from the womb to tomb. It does not end with the attainment of maturity.
|
Stages of growth and development
Name of stages
|
Period and Approximate Age
|
1. Pre-natal
(pre-birth) Stage
|
From conception to birth
|
2. Stage
of Infancy
|
From birth to two years
|
3. Childhood
Stage
(a) Early
Childhood
(b) Later
Childhood
|
From 3rd to 12 years or up to the
onset of puberty.
From 3rd to 5 years
From 6 to 12 years
|
4. Adolescent
Stage
|
From the onset of puberty to the age of
maturity (generally, 12-19 years)
|
5. Adulthood
|
From 20 years and beyond.
|
Read Related Posts:
What is “Data Collection”?
What is “Data Collection”?
Data
collection is a process of gathering
information. It is an important component
in any kind of research. The process of data collection brings forth various
pool of information and helps the researchers to formulate a notion for a
research. Depending on the nature of information to be gathered, different instruments
are administered for different data collection process.
Saturday 4 March 2017
Lev. S. Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is the concept
given by the Russian psychologist, Lev.
S. Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Vygotsky was famous for his theory of Socio-Cultural
Development. According to him, development takes place primarily
through interaction with one’s culture.
Lev.S. Vygotsky |
In a layman’s term, ZPD is defined as the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he/she can do with help or assistance. It is an area of learning that takes place when a student is given assistance (also called Scaffolding) by a teacher or more skilled peer. In other words, the ZPD is the gap between the actual competence level and the potential development level.
Actual competence refers to
what problem level a student or an individual is able to solve independently,
whereas potential development level refers to what problem level a student or
an individual could solve with the help of a teacher.
Developmental Stages: Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson |
Developmental Stages:
Gender is one very important aspect of our personality. But personality is much more than our notions of being male or female together with related attitudes and interests. It includes all of the abilities, predispositions, habits, and other qualities that make each of us different from every other person.Fundamentals of Statistics
Statistics:
In the simplest form, Statistics is defined as a numerical representation of information. According to a renowned English statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley, statistics refers to numerical statements of facts in any area of inquiry.
Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley,
also an economist, worked on economic statistics
and pioneered the use of sampling techniques in social surveys.
Statistics is also
seen a branch of mathematics which deals with enumeration data (one
type of numerical data). Statistics is used as a tool in data analysis of a research;
it is used to gather, organize, analyze, and interpret information gathered.
Let’s first
understand what the data is. Data refers
to a set or a bundle of information which is collected in order to conduct a
research. Data is of two types: Numerical, and Non-numerical.
The data that can
be counted is termed as numerical data;
it deals with numbers and calculation, whereas non-numerical data deals with information which cannot be counted
rather it is inferred or assumed.
Though both types
of data (numerical as well as non-numerical) are information, the role of
statistics is confined to “numerical data” only.
Numerical data is
of two types—enumeration data, and metric data. Enumeration data refers to information which can be counted, for
example, class intervals, frequencies, etc. Metric data is based on measurement; it needs unit specification in
order to make sense of data.
Branch of Statistics:
There are two major
branches of statistics—“Descriptive Statistics”, and “Inferential Statistics”.
Descriptive Statistics:
It describes certain characteristics of a group of data. It has to be precise (precise means brief and exact). It limits generalization to the particular group of individuals observed. Hence, no conclusions are extended beyond this group, and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed. The data describe one group and that group only.Inferential Statistics:
It is related to the estimation or prediction based on certain evidence. It always involves the process of sampling and the selection of a small group. This small group is assumed to be related to the population from which it has been taken. The small group is known as the sample, and the large group is the population. Inferential Statistics allows the research to draw conclusions about populations based on observations of samples.Following are the two important goals of inferential statistics:
·
The first goal is to determine what might be happening in a
population based on a sample of the population.
·
And the second goal is to determine what might happen in future.
Thus, inferential
statistics are to estimate and/or to predict. In order to use inferential
statistics, only a sample of the population is required.
Organization of Data:
Ordered Array:
It refers to the data (a set of information) which is arranged in descending order, for example, 90, 80, 75, 68, 60. The Ordered Array, also known as Set, provides a more convenient arrangement. The highest score is 90 and lowest score is 60 are easily identified. In this way, the range (the difference between the highest and the lowest scores, plus one) can be easily determined.Grouped Data:
The data which can be presented in the form of class interval and frequency is known as the Grouped Data. In this way of presentation, the data are often more clearly presented. Data can be presented in frequency table with different class intervals, depending on the number and range of the scores. There is no rule that rigidly determines the proper score interval. However, intervals of 10 are frequently used.Scope of Educational Psychology
Scope of Educational Psychology:
There are three aspects of education that concern the educational psychologists (those who are experts in the field of educational psychology). These are:
1. Learner
2. Learning Process
3. Learning Situation
Learner:
Learner means the children
or students collectively comprise the classroom group. The learner is the
central theme in educational psychology. What happens in the classroom can be
explained in terms of personalities, developmental stages, adjustment, and
psycho-social problems of students, individual differences in psycho-motor
abilities, and cognitive ability.
Learning
Process:
What goes on when people
learn is terms as “learning process”. The teacher teaches and the children may
learn. Sometimes, the teacher teaches a subject but the children learn
something else. Sometimes, the teacher may not teach something, but the
children may learn it. The educational psychologies is interest in what happens
when a child learns, why he learns what teachers want him to learn, and why he
learns what teachers do not want him to learn.
Learning
Situation:
It refers to those factors
or conditions that affect the learner and the learning process. For example, classroom settings, attitude and
behavior of the teacher, emotional climate of the school, and so on are some of
the significant factors that affect the learner and the learning process.
What is Educational Research?
Educational Research:
In order to understand educational research, we have to first look at what a research is. A research is “planned”, “systematic”, and “rigorous” activity which is carried out to make known whatever is unknown. A research activity is also undertaken to verify whatever is known.
Planned refers to thinking about
something or preparing a roadmap prior to carrying out a research; systematic
means a logical order; and rigorous refers to pain-taking exercise which
requires certain kind of competence, knowledge base and specific skills.
According to Best and Kahn, a
research is directed towards the solution of a problem. It may attempt to
answer a question or to determine the relation between two or more variable.
Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
What is Educational Research? |
When a research is concerned with
human efforts towards solving the problems related to educational sphere in a
society is termed as “educational research”. Thus, educational research refers
to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the educational
process, generally with a view to improving its efficiency.
The main concerns of educational
research are to understand, explain, predict, and control human behavior in
individual and social situations so that events or situations can be improved
further.
Need for Educational Research:
Educational research (or research in the
field of education) is vital for providing helpful and dependable knowledge
through which the process of education can be made more effective. As we know
that education depends on amount of knowledge, there is a need to add new
knowledge which has to be scientific, to enrich and improve education with
different dimensions.
Research in education helps in clarifying and reinterpreting existing knowledge. The discipline of education finds its roots in philosophy, psychology and sociology. It is through an intensive process of scientific inquiry about the philosophical, psychological and sociological impact on various aspects of education that sound educational theories can be established. Therefore, there is a need for educational research because of changing conception of education.
Summary of general kinds of research:
Summary of general kinds of research:
What are the Different Types of Research?
Types of Research:
Generally, research is classified into the following categories based on the objectives the researcher intends to accomplish.Basic or Fundamental Research:
Basic research is aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes. The purpose of basic or fundamental research is generation of new knowledge for the sake of knowledge. It is not directed towards the solution of immediate practical problems. Basic research is usually conducted by using the most rigorous research methods (e.g., experimental) under tightly controlled laboratory conditions.Objectives of Educational Research
Objectives of Educational Research:
Exploration:
It is focused on describing the nature of something
that previously was unknown; it is also used when the researcher tries
to understand the specifics of some phenomenon or some situation to develop tentative
hypotheses or generalization about it.
Exploration:
It attempting to learn
about and generate ideas about phenomena) is especially important in the early
phases of research because researchers must generate ideas about phenomena
before additional research can progress.
Description:
It refers to attempting to
describe the characteristics of a phenomenon. Description is one of the most basic activities in research. It
might simply involve observing a phenomenon and recording what one sees.
Explanation:
It attempts to show how and
why a phenomenon operates as it does.
Prediction:
It
is prediction or attempting to predict or forecast a phenomenon. A researcher is able to make a prediction when certain
information that is known in advance can be used to determine what will happen
at a later point in time. Sometimes predictions can also be made from research
studies in which the primary focus is on explanation. That is, when researchers
determine cause-and-effect operation (explanations), the can use this information
to form predictions.
Influence:
It attempts to apply
research to make certain outcomes occur. This objective refers to the application of research knowledge rather
than the generation of research knowledge. It refers to the application
of previous research to control various aspects of the world.