“Primary Reinforcer” and “Generalized Reinforcer”

Difference between “Primary Reinforcer” and “Generalized Reinforcer”:

According to B.F. Skinner, reinforcer can be primary reinforcer or generalized reinforcer.

A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is naturally reinforcing, such as food, drink, or sex. These stimuli (food, drink, or sex) are related to an unlearned need or drive. Stimuli that satisfy these drives tend to be highly reinforcing for most of the organisms. They are referred to as positive stimuli.

A generalized reinforcer is a stimulus which has acquired reinforcing properties through repeated pairings with other reinforcers under various situations; the stimulus (which was previously neutral) now becomes reinforcing for many behaviors. 

For example, if an animal is always fed from a stainless steel plate, the plate itself comes to acquired reinforcing properties because it is regularly associated with the food. 

Another example is money which has no intrinsic value; but it acquires its value through repeated association with the necessities of life.

Generally, a primary reinforcer is one which is related to the organism’s basic physiological system, for example, hunger or thirst.  On the other hand, a generalized reinforcer does not have intrinsic reinforcing properties for the organism; rather their reinforcing values are learned because they are associated with some primary reinforcer.

Thus, the generalized reinforcer tends to supplement or substitute the primary reinforcer.

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Difference between “Reinforcer” and “Reinforcement”

B.F. Skinner insisted that the causes of behavior are outside the organism; they have to do with the consequences of actions. Thus, Skinner seeks to discover and describe the laws that govern interactions between the organism and the environment. To do this, Skinner relies on what he describes as the experimental analysis of behavior.

Also Read: Difference between “Primary Reinforcer” and “Generalized Reinforcer”

B.F. Skinner had done an extensive research on reinforcement. The concept of reinforcement is among the major contributions by Skinner, an American psychologist, to the behaviorism.

Skinner's experiment involves two kinds of variables--independent variables, and dependent variables. The independent variables are the factors that can be directly manipulated experimentally like reinforcement, whereas depended variables are those that are affected by manipulations of the independent variables like the rate of response.

The main independent variables in Skinner's system are the type of reinforcement and the reinforcement schedule (how reinforcement is presented).

Skinner made an important distinction between two related terms—reinforcer and reinforcement. In Skinnerian terms, a reinforcer is a stimulus, whereas reinforcement is the effect of this stimulus.

For example, candy can be reinforcer because it is a stimulus. Now, just think the other dimension, that is, a piece of candy is not reinforcement; its effect on a person can be an example of reinforcement.

Reinforcer is widely defined as: “It (reinforcer) is any stimulus that increases the probability that a response will occur. Now, it is evident from the definition that the effect of a stimulus determines whether it will be reinforcing. In other words, reinforcement (effect) requires the use of some reinforcer (stimulus) in the learning situation.

Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that strengthens the desired behavior and increases the probability of the occurrence of that behavior.  Positive reinforcers tend to be pleasant stimuli. For example, in the Skinner’s box, food pellets are pleasant stimuli that serve as positive reinforcer.

A negative reinforcer also strengthens a behavior, but it does so by eliminating something that is unwanted. For example, in the Skinner’s box, if a mild current were turned on in the electric grid that runs through the floor of the box, and if this current were turned off only when the rat depressed the lever, turning off the current would be an example of an aversive stimulus serving as a negative reinforcer.

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What is “Operant Conditioning”?

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (commonly known as B. F. Skinner) had coined the term of “operant conditioning”. Skinner, who was the behaviorist in his approach, was born in the United States of America on 20^th March 1904 and died on 18^th August 1990. He had worked at Harvard University as the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology.

The term “operant conditioning” (also called instrumental conditioning) refers to the learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents.

Here, it is worth mentioning that “antecedents” are the events that precede a behavior or action, whereas “consequences” are the events that follow an action or behavior.

Skinner believed that the principles of classical conditioning account for only a small proportion of learned behaviors. According to him, many human behaviors are operants, and not respondents. Respondents are elicited by particular stimuli such as Pavlov bell.

In a respondent situation, an individual learns merely by being in the situation and responding to it. Skinner argued that not all behavior is of this type. Most of human behavior is operant behavior, which is emitted, not elicited.

Before moving ahead with operant conditioning, let us discuss in brief about classical conditioning in order to have concept clarity.

Classical conditioning describes only how existing behaviors might be paired with new stimuli; however, it does not explain how new operant behaviors are acquired.

In classical conditioning, behavior (such as response or action) is simply a word for what a person does in a particular situation. It lies between the antecedents and consequences.

There is a relationship in antecedents, behavior, and consequence.

A-----B-----C

Here, “A” stands for antecedents; “B” stands for behaviors; and “C” stands for consequences.

Now, let’s talk about the “operant conditioning”.

During the period of 1930s, B. F. Skinner had started his experiments on “operant conditioning” (also called instrumental conditioning).

The operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the strength of a behavior is modified by the behavior’s consequences (such as reward or punishment); in which the behavior is controlled by antecedents.

Skinner wanted to study reinforced responding without breaking the experiments in discrete trials. In order to study operant conditioning, Skinner had invented the operant conditioning chamber, popularly known as the Skinner box or Operant Chamber.

An operant chamber is a simple box with device at one end that can be worked by the animal in the box. For rats, cats, and monkeys, the device is a lever, and for pigeon the device is a small panel (called a key) which can be pecked.

The lever and the key are switches that activate when positive reinforcement is being used. Thus, positive reinforcement is contingent upon pressing a lever or pecking a key.

The first step in the operant conditioning of a hungry rat is to get food pellets when they are delivered by the experimenter who operates the pellet.

The pellets are delivered one by one; after some that the rate eats each pellet as soon as it drops. Then, the experimenter stops releasing the pellets and the rat is left alone in the Skinner box with the lever which will release the pellets.

After an initial period of inactivity, the hungry rat begins to explore the box. Finally, the rat presses the level accidentally. A pellet of food is released, i.e. the reinforcement is contingent upon pressing the lever.

After eating the food pellet, the rat continues exploring and after a while, it presses the lever again, and again the pellet is released, then after it presses the lever the third time.

Usually, after the fourth and fifth press, the rat begins to press the lever more rapidly and operant behavior is developed.  B.F. Skinner, who had founded a school of experimental research psychology (called the “experimental analysis of behavior”), had preferred the term reinforcement to reward.

According to Skinner, reward is a subjective interpretation of behavior which is associated with pleasurable event, whereas reinforcement is simply defined as an effect that increases the probability of a response.

Thus, the experiment on operant conditioning shows that operant behavior can be altered by changes in the antecedents, the consequences, or both.

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What are the "Factors of Learning"?

What are the "Factors of Learning"?

There are various factors that assist the process of learning among human beings. These factors can be divided into the following categories:

Psychological Factors:

These are the most important factors in the process of learning. It includes the following factors:

• Generalization: When an individual goes through many similar and comparable experiences, he/she discerns the common element among them. On this basis, he/she formulates a general rule that has considerable influence on his/her future conduct.
• Facilitation: It is an important factor in learning because it is human tendency to learn activities that are simple and interesting.
• Differentiation: An individual distinguishes between dissimilar objects or compares them in such a manner to bring dissimilarity.
• Inhibition: It is an obstructive psychological element or factor in learning. In this, some psychological elements provide obstruction in the learning process.
• Integration: It helps to improve one’s insight into the subjects already learnt.

Also Read: What is “Learning”?

Physiological Factors:

Learning is more a psycho-physiological process than a purely psychological one. Following are the important physiological factors in learning:

·     Fatigue: In a state of fatigue, the individual’s capacity to learn is considerably reduced and all that is learnt is also easily forgotten.

·      Drugs and intoxicants: These are the obstacles in the process of learning.

·     Diseases: Disease, whether it is physical or mental, obstructs learning as it reduces the capacity to grasp and learn.

·  Excited Physical Condition: An excited bodily state, arising out of emotion cause difficulty in learning.

·   Difference in Age and Maturity: Before any particular activity can be acquired, it is necessary to attain a particular level of maturity that can only come at a particular age level.

Physical Factors:

The physical factors have also some importance in the learning process. For example, high and low temperature, noise, and amount of humidity, all these conditions influence the process of learning.

Social Factors:

Man is a social animal and all his activities are influenced by the social conditions, for example, imitation, suggestion, sympathy, praise, competition, and cooperation. All these factors influence the learning process.

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What are the "Methods of Learning"?

The principal forms or methods of learning are learning through imitation, learning through conditioned response, learning through trial and error, and learning through insight.

Learning through Imitation:

Learning through imitation is one of the most important forms of learning. It is generally observed that children imitate the behavior, habits, manners and ways of adults. In imitation, the learning exactly copies the behavior of anther person without understanding or thinking.

Also Read: What is “Learning”?

The main characteristics of learning through imitation are the following:

·         The imitator never does it before imitation, but performs the activity only after seeing it

·         In imitation, learner exactly copies the activity performed before him/her (learner)

Learning through Conditioned Response:

It is one of the most important methods of learning, especially for children. In childhood, many of the responses of the child are conditioned to particular objects and even when the individual becomes an adult, his conditioned response continues.

Learning through Trial and Error:

The method of trial and error is used in the following circumstances:

• This method is used when the learner is completely motivated and can see the goal clearly. Motivation as well as the presence of the goal is necessary for awakening the response in learning through trial and error.
• The method of trial and error is used when the learner fails to find the solution of the problem. It is only when he/she fails to find out the solution of the problem that he/she proceeds blindly, tries in various directions, commits errors, eliminates them, and finally arrives at a successful response
• The method of trial and error is used when perception alone or learned activities are not sufficient.

Learning through Insight:

The insight method of learning is superior to the methods of imitation and conditioned response, because both the latter methods (imitation and conditioned response) take more time.

Students will be permanently helped by the use of insight method of learning in place of trial and error methods in their studies and other activities.

There are many characteristics of learning through insight. These are as follows:

Insight is sudden

• Insight alters perception
• Old objects appear in new patterns and organization by virtue of insight
• Insight is relative to the intellectual level
• Previous experiences and maturity also effects insight

Maturation and Learning:

The learner’s stage of maturity is important in the learning process. Until and unless, there is sufficient physiological maturity, there will be little learning.

For example, the child learns to walk only after he has reached a particular stage. He learns to read more easily only after he has reached his individual state of readiness for reading.

Rate of maturation varies from individual to individual. Automatic activity, random acts, reflexes and instincts and sudden expressions of emotions can be accepted as unlearned actions and the result of maturation.

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What is “Learning”?

What is Learning?

When we hear the word learning, most of us think of studying and school. The matter of the fact is that learning is not limited to school. We learn everyday of our lives. Babies learn to kick their legs, teenagers learn cycling or lyrics of their favorite song, middle-aged people learn to change their diet patters.

In the light of all these examples, it can be inferred that learning occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge and behavior. Learning is a change that takes place through practice or experience, changes due to growth or maturation.

It is worth mentioning here that the change might be deliberate or unintentional; but the change must be relatively permanent; it must be for a long time.

Also Read: What are the "Methods of Learning"?

Also Read: What are the "Factors of Learning"?

In other words, learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things. When learning occurs, a more or less permanent change is experienced in the learner’s behavior.

Learning is an active process that needs to be stimulated and guided towards desirable outcomes. External stimuli that induce learning include, particularly the influence of the teacher through the assignments he/she makes, the questions he/she asks, the visual aids and other procedures that he/she utilizes to arouse learning interest and activity.

Definitions of Learning:

The following definitions have been given from different perspectives. These are:

1. Learning is a Change in Behavior:

According to J.P. Guilford, “Learning is any change in behavior, resulting from behavior”. In this definition, a distinction between change in behavior due to maturity and change in behavior due to learning is not clear; though both these activities take place simultaneously.

2. Learning is an Organization of Behavior:

According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” In the light of this definition, it is evident that the element of organization in learning is very much important. For example, in learning to ride a cycle, we have to organize the activities of turning the pedal, balancing the handle, etc. in order to be reasonably safe with the vehicle. Learning of the activity of cycling will be complete, only when he/she accomplishes this organization.

3. Learning is the Reinforcement of the New Activity:

Learning of a new activity is an addition to the person’s store of experience. Reinforcement too is an vital element in the act of learning; it helps in forming only successful responses and weeding out the unsuccessful one. According to R. S. Woodworth, “An activity may be called learning in so far as it develops the individual in any way, good or bad and makes his environment and experiences different from what it would otherwise have been.”

Characteristics of Learning:

• Learning is growth
• Learning is purposeful
• Learning is intelligent
• Learning is both individual and social
• Learning affects the conduct of the learner
• Learning is adjustment
• Learning is experience
• Learning is active

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Types of Philosophical Research & Philosophical Research Paradigms

Types of Philosophical Research:

According to Wingo, there are three types of philosophical researches: These are the following:

Descriptive Philosophical Research: It includes study of history of philosophy, study of different philosophers, and general development of philosophical thought. For example: Educational issues looked at from the viewpoint of different philosophers.

Normative Philosophical Research: It includes to establish, norms, standards or guidelines, for conduct of human affairs with reference to knowledge of reality. It involves identification of human dispositions which are worthy of cultivation, pointing out arguments for why these dispositions are to be considered excellence and discussing how these excellence are to be nurtured or cultivated.

Analytical Philosophical Research: It includes analysis of concepts, theories, language etc. It also includes analyzing positivism, anti-positivism etc.

Philosophical Research Paradigms:

Before explaining Philosophical Research Paradigms, it is important to under the following terms first: 

1. Ontology: They study what we mean when we say something exists. According to Blaikie, “Claims and assumptions that are made about nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other.”

2. Epistemology: They study what we mean when we say we know something. According to Crotty, “the theory of knowledge embedded in theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology.”

Therefore, paradigm can be defined in the following manner:

"Ontological + Epistemological Assumptions= Paradigm"

After a brief description about ontology and epistemology, now we are going to discuss various paradigms of philosophical research. These are:

POSITIVIST PARADIGM:

·         It is also called scientific paradigm.

·         The purpose of research is to prove or disprove a hypothesis

·         Emphasis on scientific method, statistical analysis and generalize findings

·         It usually has a control and experimental group and pre/test post method.

·    It was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte who believed that realty can be observed.

Positive Thinkers	Philosophies
Aristotle	Deductive Reasoning
Descarte	Realism
Galileo	Scientific Method
Auguste Comte	Positivism
Francis Bacon	Inductive Reasoning
Karl Popper	Post Positivism

Ontological Assumptions	Epistemology Assumptions
Reality is external to researcher and represented by objects in space	The methodology of natural science should be employed to study social reality
Objects have meaning independently of any consciousness of them	Truth can be attained because knowledge rests on a set of firm, unquestionable, indisputable truths from which our belief may be deduced
Reality can be captured by our senses and predicted	Knowledge is generated deductively from a theory or hypothesis
	Knowledge is objective

POST POSITIVISM:

There has been criticism of positivist paradigm for applying scientific method to research on human affairs (casual links that can be established in the study of natural science cannot be made in world of classroom where teacher and learner constructed meaning).

Popper argued that we should not quickly disregard all good qualities of scientific method. Rather, we can make small adjustments that can be improved upon to provide objective research within social science.

Limitations:

·       No matter how stringently a scientist adheres to scientific method, there is never an outcome that is objective.

·       The critical theorists Habermas emphasizes the determinist view of science as the “the ideal knowledge” which ignores the moral choices, values and judgments scientist make.

·         Ideology of Parsimony Theory: Simple and concise as possible.

INTERPRETIVIST PARADIGM:

It is also called “Anti-Positivist Paradigm”, because it was developed as a reaction to the Positivism. It is also sometimes referred to as “Constructivism” because it emphasizes the ability of individual to construct meaning.

Thinkers	Philosophies
Edmund Huserl	Phenomenology
Arthur Schultz Wilhelm dilthey, Han Georg Gadamer	Hermeneutics
Harold Garfinkel	Ethnomethodology

Ontological Assumptions	Epistemology Assumptions
Reality is indirectly constructed based on individual interpretation and is subjective.	Knowledge is gained through a strategy that “respects the differences between people and objects of natural science and therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action.
People interpret and make their own meaning of events.	Knowledge is gained inductively to create a theory
Events are distinctive and cannot be generalized.	Knowledge arises from particular situations and is not reducible to simplistic interpretation.
There are multiple perspectives on one incident	Knowledge is gained through personal experience.
Causation in social science is determined by interpreted meaning and symbols.

Limitations:

·   It abandons the scientific procedure of verification and therefore results cannot be generalized to other situations.

·         It is biased because of its subjectivity

·       It neglected to acknowledge the political and ideological influence on knowledge and social realty.

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