Declarative Long-Term Memory & Non-declarative Long-Term Memory
What are the types of "Long-Term Memory"?
Friday 10 March 2017
What is the Constructive Nature of Long-Term Memory?
Our
long-term memories are seldom exact reproductions of our experiences. In fact,
memories change considerably over time. According to Loftus (1979), long-term
memories tend to be generative rather than purely reproductive.
What is “Constructive Memory”?
It is an alternate label for long-term memory.
It is meant to emphasize the extent to which remembering involves
reconstructing experiences. With the passage of time, we tend to remember
less and less accurately.
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One
characteristics of long-term memory (that might explain its constructive
nature) is that our memories appear to be scattered in many parts of our
brains.
Studies
using positron emission tomography or magnetic resonance imaging
(imaging techniques that can reveal location and patterns of neural activity in
the brain) indicate that there is not just one single memory trace for each
item that we remember.
As a
result, long-term remembering is a process of retrieving from different brain
locations isolated features of the experience we are recalling and putting them
together in a sort of pattern-completion process.
Positron Emission Tomography:
Also referred to as a PET Scan. It is a
medical diagnostic technique and research tool that can be used to provide
computer-enhanced images of body structures and of neurological functioning.
It is a power tool for brain and memory research.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
Popularly referred to as MRI. It is a powerful
medical diagnostic tool that makes use of computer-enhanced images of
magnetic fields in the body to reveal details about physical and neurological
structure and functioning. It is highly useful for brain and memory research.
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Influences on Long-Term Memory:
Not all
of our long-term memories are subject to distortions and inventions. Highly significant
emotional experiences sometimes give rise to long-lasting and remarkably
detailed flashbulb memories.
What is "Flashbulb Memory"?
It is unusually vivid and relatively permanent
recollections of the details surrounding first hearing some emotionally
significant news.
What is "Eidetic Image"?
It is a particularly vivid type of visual
image in memory. In many ways, it is as though the individual were actually
able to look at what is being remembered—hence the synonym photographic memory.
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Thursday 9 March 2017
What is “Personality”?
Concept and Nature of Personality:
Thus,
any description of an individual’s personality must into account his
appearance, abilities, motives, emotional reactions, his values and attitudes
and his distinctive traits (or characteristics).
If we
talk about psychologists’ point of view, they, while defining personality,
employ indispensable ideas of integration
and uniqueness. Personality
invariably signifies the functioning of the whole person and the unique
organization of the individual that distinguishes him from his fellows.
Sunday 5 March 2017
The Modal Model of Memory: Sensory, Short-term, and Long-term Memory
It is
the most widely used model of information processing. It is essential a model
of human memory. This model is first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the year 1968. The model is also known as “modal model of memory” or multi-store model.
The modal
model of memory makes an important distinction between two types of information
storage (i.e. memory). These are: short-term
memory (also called working memory),
and long-term memory. In some
versions of the model, a third memory component is included and that is short-term sensory storage (which is
also called sensory memory). Altogether, there are three separate components of human memory asserted by this model.
Distinctions
among the three types of storage are concerned mainly with the nature and
extent of the processing that
information undergoes.
Processing
refers to activities such as paying attention, organizing, analyzing,
synthesizing, and rehearsing.
Also,
the three types of storage differ in their capacity and in the extent to which
their contents are accessible.
This basic
information processing model of cognitive psychology does two related things:
First, it provides us with an overall model of human memory. Second, it
addresses various learning-related questions that are critically important for
teachers—questions concerning how information is organized and sorted, which
teaching and learning methods can facilitate information processing, and how
memory can be improved.
Sensory Memory:
Our
sensory systems (vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell) are sensitive to an
overwhelmingly wide range of stimulation. However, they respond only to a
fraction of all available stimulation at any given time; the bulk of the
information available in this stimulation is never actually processed—that is,
it never actually becomes part of our cognitive
structure.
Sensory
memory is the label used to describe the immediate unconscious effects of
stimulation. Sensory memory is highly limited, both in terms of the length of
time during which stimulus information is available for processing and in the
absolute amount of information available. In other words, sensory memory is no
more than the immediate sensory effect of a stimulus.
Much of
the stimulation to which we are not actually paying attention is nevertheless
available for processing for perhaps a fraction of a second.
For example,
if you are engaged in a conversation with someone in a crowded room, you might
be totally unaware of what is being said in any other conversation. But if the
topic in one of these other conversations turns to something that passionately
interests you, you suddenly become aware of what you would not otherwise have
heart. This occurrence is labeled the cocktail
party phenomenon.
Short-Term Memory:
Sensory
memory precedes attention; it is simply the effect of a stimulus before you pay
attention to it. When you attend to a stimulus (in other words, you become
conscious of it), it passes into short-term memory.
Short-term
memory consists of what is in our immediate consciousness at any given time. It
is a sort of scratch pad for thinking; for this reason, short-term memory is
often called working memory.
One of
the important characteristics of short-term memory is that it is highly limited
in capacity. Its average capacity is about seven separate items (plus or minus
two); that is, our immediate conscious awareness is limited to this capacity,
and as additional items of information come in, they push out some that are
already there.
Short-term
memory lasts a matter of seconds (not minutes, hours, or days). It appears to
be highly dependent or rehearsal. That is, for items to be maintained in
short-term storage, they must be repeated. In the absence of repetition, they
quickly fade, usually before 20 seconds have elapsed.
What is Cognitivism?
Literally,
to cognize means to know, and hence cognition is knowing. Cognitivism
is the study of cognition that emphasizes the role of mental structure, or
organization.
Approaches to Human Learning: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Humanism
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| Approaches to Learning |
Behaviorism:
This is one of the first scientific approaches to
understanding learning that looks at actual behavior. This approach, known as
behaviorism, begins by trying to explain simple behaviors—observable and
predictable responses.
Principles of Child Development
The process
of development is wide, complex and continuous. Therefore, one has to follow some
of its principles in order to understand it (development). Some of the
principles are the following:
Principle of Continuity:
Development follows continuity. It goes from womb to tomb and never ceases. An individual starting his life from a tiny cell develops his body, mind and other aspects of his personality though a continuous stream of development.Principle of Uniform Pattern:
Growth and Development
We are aware of the fact that human life begins from a single fertilized cell. Regular and constant interaction with the environment results in the growth and development of innate capacities, abilities and potentialities of a child. Let’s understand first what the growth and the development mean.
Growth:
It means the growth of different parts of human body. It refers to quantitative changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal organs, etc. The physical growth affects our behavior and vice versa. Therefore, in the simplest form, growth can be defined as body, shape and growth in weight; it also includes growth of muscles. For example, during infancy and childhood, the body of a person steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier. It is “growth”.Development:
It refers
to the various qualitative changes which take place simultaneously with
quantitative changes of growth, for example, social changes, emotional changes,
etc. Development may be defined as a “progressive” series of “orderly and
coherent” changes. The term progressive denotes that changes are directional;
they lead forward rather than backward. Terms such as orderly and coherent suggest
that there is a definite relationship between the changes taking place and
those that precede or will follow them.
Thus,
development represents changes in an organism from its origin to its death. It is
the series of overall changes in an individual due to the emergence of modified
structures and functions that are the outcome of the interaction and exchange
between the organism and its environment.
Difference between growth and development:
Growth
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Development
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It is used in purely physical sense. Changes in
the quantitative aspects come under the domain of growth. For example, an
increase in size, length, height, and weight.
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It indicates changes in the quality or
character rather than in quantitative aspects.
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The changes produced by growth are the subject
of measurement. They may be quantified and are observable.
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It brings qualitative changes which are
difficult to be measured. They are assessed through keen observation.
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Growth may or may not bring development. A child
may grow in terms of weight but this growth may or may not bring any
functional improvement (qualitative changes or development)
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Development is also possible without growth as
we have seen in the cases of some children that they do not gain in terms of
height, weight, or size, but they do experience functional improvement or
development.
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Growth is one of the parts of development
process.
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Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
It refers to overall changes in individual. Growth is one of its parts.
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Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops
when maturity has been attained.
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Development is a continuous process. It goes
from the womb to tomb. It does not end with the attainment of maturity.
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Stages of growth and development
Name of stages
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Period and Approximate Age
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1. Pre-natal
(pre-birth) Stage
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From conception to birth
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2. Stage
of Infancy
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From birth to two years
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3. Childhood
Stage
(a) Early
Childhood
(b) Later
Childhood
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From 3rd to 12 years or up to the
onset of puberty.
From 3rd to 5 years
From 6 to 12 years
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4. Adolescent
Stage
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From the onset of puberty to the age of
maturity (generally, 12-19 years)
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5. Adulthood
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From 20 years and beyond.
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Read Related Posts:
What is “Data Collection”?
What is “Data Collection”?
Data
collection is a process of gathering
information. It is an important component
in any kind of research. The process of data collection brings forth various
pool of information and helps the researchers to formulate a notion for a
research. Depending on the nature of information to be gathered, different instruments
are administered for different data collection process.
Saturday 4 March 2017
Lev. S. Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is the concept
given by the Russian psychologist, Lev.
S. Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Vygotsky was famous for his theory of Socio-Cultural
Development. According to him, development takes place primarily
through interaction with one’s culture.
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| Lev.S. Vygotsky |
In a layman’s term, ZPD is defined as the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he/she can do with help or assistance. It is an area of learning that takes place when a student is given assistance (also called Scaffolding) by a teacher or more skilled peer. In other words, the ZPD is the gap between the actual competence level and the potential development level.
Actual competence refers to
what problem level a student or an individual is able to solve independently,
whereas potential development level refers to what problem level a student or
an individual could solve with the help of a teacher.
